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Grammar for Academic Writers: Conjunction Functions
The overarching expectation of scholarly writing is that
scholars provide readers with unique and complex arguments based on their synthesis
and analysis of previous scholarship while also writing clear, sophisticated
sentences in relation to those complex arguments. If that sounds easy to you,
count yourself lucky! Whether English is your native language or not, once you
begin to write about complex topics, writing itself can become more difficult
because the ideas are more complex.
In the Writing Center, I often work with students on clarifying
their complex ideas by providing sentence structure revision recommendations. Some sentence structure issues I find
students struggle with are conjunctions and, subsequently, semi-colon and comma
use. In this blog post, I hope to help demystify conjunctions and related
semi-colon and comma use.
As parts of speech, conjunctions
serve to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. The three types of
conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions, paired conjunctions, and
subordinating conjunctions. Let’s take a look at each of these conjunctions!
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are part of compound sentences which are sentences that have two independent clauses—independent
clauses are complete sentences that have a subject, verb, and object. Since
compound sentences have two independent clauses, if a writer wants to bring
them together, they can do so in three ways: with a coordinating conjunction
and a comma, with a coordinating conjunction and a semi-colon and a comma, and with
semi-colon.
In the examples below, the highlighting and font correspond
to the parts of the sentence: yellow highlighting in bold type is the subject of the sentence;
green highlighting in underlined type is the verb of the sentence; blue highlighting in
italicized type is the object
of the sentence; grey highlighting in bold, underlined type is the
coordinating conjunction of the sentence.
Coordinating Conjunction and a Comma
When two independent clauses—complete sentences with a subject, verb, and
object—are brought together with a coordinating conjunction (such as “but”
here), a comma is included before the coordinating conjunction.
Example: I
like cinnamon lattes, but he prefers straight espresso.
Coordinating Conjunction and a Semi-colon
and a Comma
Transition words, such as “however,” or “therefore,” might also
serve as a coordinating conjunction in a sentence. When they do, they would be
set off with both a semi-colon and a comma.
Example: I
like cinnamon lattes; however, he prefers straight espresso.
No Coordinating Conjunction and a Semi-colon
If two independent clauses are brought together
without a coordinating conjunction or a transition word, then a semi-colon
would be used.
Example: I
like cinnamon lattes; he prefers straight espresso.
Paired Conjunctions
Now let’s take a look at paired conjunctions. Paired conjunctions are two words or phrases brought together
to assist with making a point or to express alternatives. Note that paired
conjunctions can create wordy sentences, so they shouldn’t be used often. Here
are some examples of pared conjunctions:
both / and: Example: I like
both cinnamon lattes and straight espresso.
either / or: Example: I could
either have a cinnamon latte or a straight espresso.
not only / but also: Example: Not only do I like
cinnamon lattes, but I also like straight espresso.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Finally, there are subordinating conjunctions. Subordinating conjunctions bring together a main clause and a
subordinate clause to express the relationship between the two. There are two
main ways subordinating conjunctions might be placed in a sentence—they might
come after the main clause or before the main clause. There are many
subordinating conjunctions, such as “until” and “while.”
Main Clause + Subordinate Clause
I
am cranky in the morning until I have my cinnamon latte.
I
want a cinnamon latte while I wait for you.
Subordinate Clause + [comma] + Main Clause
Note that when the
subordinate clause comes before the main clause, a comma is used after the
subordinate clause.
Until
I have my cinnamon latte, I am cranky in the
morning.
While
I wait for you, I want
a cinnamon latte.
Knowing how to use conjunctions, and subsequently,
semi-colons and commas, can help ensure that readers are able to follow your
arguments. The Writing Center has many resources on sentence structure and
grammar to include our Mastering the Mechanics archived webinar series and our grammar modules where you can practice and test your knowledge of sentence
structure and grammar.
What sentence structure, grammar, and or mechanics parts of
speech do you struggle with? Also, let us know what tips you have for revising
and proofreading
for sentences for structure and clarity!
Veronica Oliver is a Writing Instructor in the Walden Writing Center. In her spare time she writes fiction, binge watches Netflix, and occasionally makes it to a 6am Bikram Yoga class.
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Point of View Matters
I was nearing the end of my undergraduate program when an instructor recommended that I add a sentence to an analysis that said what my goal was. With those exact words: “My goal is…” I was floored. Throughout my entire academic career, I had it repeated over and over that academic writing is always done in the third person, which means I would never say I will do this, or my goal is that. But here was this type of document that allowed for use of first person, and I had an instructor who preferred it. I shrugged my shoulders and added it in.
Later, feeling comfortable using first person in my writing, I tried the same thing in a different course and was met with a fury of red pen: NO FIRST PERSON! Whoops. I guess not every instructor feels the same. This is why it is important to consider the points of view available to us as writers and the process in choosing which to use and when. So how do we consider which point of view is best to use in scholarly writing? Let’s walk through them each to learn more.
First Person Singular (I, me, my, mine)
As the writer, if you choose to use first person singular, you are referring to yourself and only yourself. But in scholarly writing, if you use first person in “I think” or “I believe” statements, you are actually weakening your writing. It is better to present your opinions without the use of first person. Take this for example:
Before: I think that legislation banning specific dog breeds is unethical.
After: Banning specific dog breeds is unethical
With the simple removal of the “I think” phrase, this sentence says the same thing but comes across with more power. Why is that? When a sentence begins with “I think” the subject and action of the sentence are you thinking. That means the main idea is just that you have an opinion. However, when a sentence begins with the actual main idea, banning specific dog breeds, that means the main idea is your actual topic and not yourself.
Walden has an official statement on the use of first person, and when it comes to choosing when to use first person or not, I recommend reserving it for times when you (and the actions you take) are the subject. For example, if you are conducting original research, we would want to see I will do A, B, and C. Additionally, if you are writing about your personal work and academic experiences, first person is required.
First Person Plural (we, our)
First person plural is less of a gray area. As we know, first person means you are referring to yourself, but the plural here means you are referring to yourself plus other people. In most academic writing situations, I advise against using first person plural because it assumes that your reader is in the same group as you, and we can’t guarantee that. For this reason, it is better to name who you mean.
Before: We must implement these leadership changes.
After: Organizations in transition must implement these leadership changes.
In the original version, the writer assumed every reader was part of a transitional organization. The edited version names who must implement the changes, and it is much clearer for that. As you can’t know the specifics of all your readers, it is best to always avoid first person plural in academic writing. Other forms of writing that are more casual, like blogs, or audience-specific, like an email to your team, benefit from first person plural.
Second Person (You, yours)
Using second person means you are speaking directly to your reader/s as if they were there in front of you. This can be powerful when giving a speech to an audience or proposing an idea to your supervisor, but it is trickier in academic writing when your audience isn’t in front of you. Second person, like first person plural, assumes things about your reader which might not be accurate.
Before: When conducting rounds, you should assess the care environment.
After: When conducting rounds, a nurse should assess the care environment.
In the original sentence, the writer assumed that all of their readers are nurses who conduct rounds. That can’t be guaranteed, so it is preferred to name who you are writing about. The revised sentence accurately identifies who should assess the care environment.
As we want to avoid assuming things about our reader, it is best to avoid second person in most formal forms of academic writing like course papers, major assessments, and any capstone document. However, you will probably find it useful to use second person when responding to a discussion post. If you know exactly who your “you” is, then it is appropriate to use it, which tends to be the case for a lot of writing outside of academia.
Third Person (it, he, she, they, them, their, theirs)
Third person singular and plural is the most preferred point of view in academic writing. This is because it is the most specific and accurate point of view. As we looked at, first person plural and second person can be unclear, so readers may wonder who is the “we” or “you” if it doesn’t refer directly to them. Clarity and accuracy are key in academic writing, and third person requires these things as writers must name the groups of people they are referring to. Third person also removes any assumptions a writer may make about their audience. As scholars, you should be striving for objective and research-based conclusions. While choosing a third person point of view should be your starting point for all academic writing, do note the times and situations where first person singular or second person may fit in.
As each assignment and situation differs, it is important that you think through your choice behind point of view. If you have any questions about what point of view would be most appropriate, ask your instructor for clarification and their preferences. Before you leave, consider going through this blog post to see what points of view I used throughout and why I may have chosen to use those.
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Later, feeling comfortable using first person in my writing, I tried the same thing in a different course and was met with a fury of red pen: NO FIRST PERSON! Whoops. I guess not every instructor feels the same. This is why it is important to consider the points of view available to us as writers and the process in choosing which to use and when. So how do we consider which point of view is best to use in scholarly writing? Let’s walk through them each to learn more.
First Person Singular (I, me, my, mine)
As the writer, if you choose to use first person singular, you are referring to yourself and only yourself. But in scholarly writing, if you use first person in “I think” or “I believe” statements, you are actually weakening your writing. It is better to present your opinions without the use of first person. Take this for example:
Before: I think that legislation banning specific dog breeds is unethical.
After: Banning specific dog breeds is unethical
With the simple removal of the “I think” phrase, this sentence says the same thing but comes across with more power. Why is that? When a sentence begins with “I think” the subject and action of the sentence are you thinking. That means the main idea is just that you have an opinion. However, when a sentence begins with the actual main idea, banning specific dog breeds, that means the main idea is your actual topic and not yourself.
Walden has an official statement on the use of first person, and when it comes to choosing when to use first person or not, I recommend reserving it for times when you (and the actions you take) are the subject. For example, if you are conducting original research, we would want to see I will do A, B, and C. Additionally, if you are writing about your personal work and academic experiences, first person is required.
First Person Plural (we, our)
First person plural is less of a gray area. As we know, first person means you are referring to yourself, but the plural here means you are referring to yourself plus other people. In most academic writing situations, I advise against using first person plural because it assumes that your reader is in the same group as you, and we can’t guarantee that. For this reason, it is better to name who you mean.
Before: We must implement these leadership changes.
After: Organizations in transition must implement these leadership changes.
In the original version, the writer assumed every reader was part of a transitional organization. The edited version names who must implement the changes, and it is much clearer for that. As you can’t know the specifics of all your readers, it is best to always avoid first person plural in academic writing. Other forms of writing that are more casual, like blogs, or audience-specific, like an email to your team, benefit from first person plural.
Second Person (You, yours)
Using second person means you are speaking directly to your reader/s as if they were there in front of you. This can be powerful when giving a speech to an audience or proposing an idea to your supervisor, but it is trickier in academic writing when your audience isn’t in front of you. Second person, like first person plural, assumes things about your reader which might not be accurate.
Before: When conducting rounds, you should assess the care environment.
After: When conducting rounds, a nurse should assess the care environment.
In the original sentence, the writer assumed that all of their readers are nurses who conduct rounds. That can’t be guaranteed, so it is preferred to name who you are writing about. The revised sentence accurately identifies who should assess the care environment.
As we want to avoid assuming things about our reader, it is best to avoid second person in most formal forms of academic writing like course papers, major assessments, and any capstone document. However, you will probably find it useful to use second person when responding to a discussion post. If you know exactly who your “you” is, then it is appropriate to use it, which tends to be the case for a lot of writing outside of academia.
Third Person (it, he, she, they, them, their, theirs)
Third person singular and plural is the most preferred point of view in academic writing. This is because it is the most specific and accurate point of view. As we looked at, first person plural and second person can be unclear, so readers may wonder who is the “we” or “you” if it doesn’t refer directly to them. Clarity and accuracy are key in academic writing, and third person requires these things as writers must name the groups of people they are referring to. Third person also removes any assumptions a writer may make about their audience. As scholars, you should be striving for objective and research-based conclusions. While choosing a third person point of view should be your starting point for all academic writing, do note the times and situations where first person singular or second person may fit in.
As each assignment and situation differs, it is important that you think through your choice behind point of view. If you have any questions about what point of view would be most appropriate, ask your instructor for clarification and their preferences. Before you leave, consider going through this blog post to see what points of view I used throughout and why I may have chosen to use those.
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Writing Introductions for Discussion Board Posts
Problem: You have to write a discussion post, but only have a certain amount of words/characters you are able to use. You know you need an introduction, so that your reader is not confused, but you aren’t quite sure how to draft one given the limited amount of characters and space you can use to draft a discussion post. But have no fear! In this post you will learn how to draft a perfectly acceptable three-sentence introduction for this type of assignment in no time!
Solution: It is perfectly acceptable to write a 3 sentence introduction To do this, the Walden University Writing Center specialists are here to help you learn about code shifting. Code shifting is the ability to change our writing based on what we are writing.
Code Shifting
Say you have a bad day at work. Your boss was mean. Your sandwich was soggy. Your coffee was cold. Is the text you write to your best friend complaining about this the same as the text you would write to your mother? To your grandmother? To a workmate?
Doubt it. Grandma needs a little less slang, best friend can understand emojis and abbreviations, and mom prefers to speak on the phone. The point of this is that we all have different communication methods when we are communicating in different ways. Writing is no different. Sure, you need an introduction for that discussion board post you can only use 500 words in. But it doesn’t need to be a full-scale academic introduction with 7-8 sentences and a problem statement.
Last: Re-read Your Body Paragraphs
Re-read the thesis statement you drafted. See how you can add a topic sentence and even, possibly, a lead-in sentence that moves your reader from your topic sentence to your thesis statement. It is completely acceptable to have a three-sentence introduction for a discussion board post! In fact, it is advised, as it allows you to spend more time and space on the ideas that matter the most in your post, while still giving your reader the direction they need. Some people can even swing this type of introduction in two sentences. It may be something you want to play with—but I would say start with 3 sentences first, and see how that goes.
And, Voila! You now have an introduction, topic sentence and thesis statement for a discussion board post. You have saved an hour or so in your writing/drafting due to outlining first. And your reader knows exactly what your post is about and gets a lot of valuable information due to you drafting such a focused and specific discussion board introduction. Go you!
Stay tuned for a future post on how to draft a conclusion statement (instead of a full-on conclusion) for discussion board posts. I promise to save you even more time with the next set of tips! We'll update this space with a link when the post goes live in the near future.
Meghan K Barnes holds a BFA in Professional Writing & English, an MFA in Nonfiction Literature, and a MAT in Post-Secondary Adult Online Education. These degrees lead to multiple opportunities including a Fulbright Scholarship to study the nonfiction work of Sylvia Plath in England, three Pushcart Prize Nominations, and four book publications.
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Solution: It is perfectly acceptable to write a 3 sentence introduction To do this, the Walden University Writing Center specialists are here to help you learn about code shifting. Code shifting is the ability to change our writing based on what we are writing.
Code Shifting
Say you have a bad day at work. Your boss was mean. Your sandwich was soggy. Your coffee was cold. Is the text you write to your best friend complaining about this the same as the text you would write to your mother? To your grandmother? To a workmate?
Doubt it. Grandma needs a little less slang, best friend can understand emojis and abbreviations, and mom prefers to speak on the phone. The point of this is that we all have different communication methods when we are communicating in different ways. Writing is no different. Sure, you need an introduction for that discussion board post you can only use 500 words in. But it doesn’t need to be a full-scale academic introduction with 7-8 sentences and a problem statement.
This is where your code shifting comes into play. You will want to use the strong writing skills you already have to master the more concise writing that takes place on a discussion board. So How Do You Do This?
First: Outline Your Ideas
One of the biggest things we see in the Writing Center when students are working on shorter documents is that they have a lot to say! And rightfully so! However, when you write out everything and go back and edit it you end up losing a lot of time that could be spent with your family, friends, sleeping, or even on other assignments. Outlining your ideas first will make sure you understand what the most important issues are that you need to touch on, allow you to omit some of the more minor issues, and it will give you a sense of direction for this discussion board post, which means you will do less work overall. Hooray!
Second: Write Your Body Paragraphs
Say what you have to say in your first draft. This is a little bit different than how you may do some of your other writing, but allowing yourself to see the focus of the body of your post will allow you to not only have a more focused and targeted thesis statement, but it will allow you to see what is needed and what is not needed before you go into your second round of drafting: actually writing your thesis statement/introduction.
Third: Read Your Body Paragraphs TwiceFlip your paper over, cover your monitor, close your eyes (if you can write with your eyes closed) and see how you can summarize all of the wonderful things you covered in your body paragraphs in one sentence. This should give you an idea of what your thesis statement is going to be.
First: Outline Your Ideas
One of the biggest things we see in the Writing Center when students are working on shorter documents is that they have a lot to say! And rightfully so! However, when you write out everything and go back and edit it you end up losing a lot of time that could be spent with your family, friends, sleeping, or even on other assignments. Outlining your ideas first will make sure you understand what the most important issues are that you need to touch on, allow you to omit some of the more minor issues, and it will give you a sense of direction for this discussion board post, which means you will do less work overall. Hooray!
Second: Write Your Body Paragraphs
Say what you have to say in your first draft. This is a little bit different than how you may do some of your other writing, but allowing yourself to see the focus of the body of your post will allow you to not only have a more focused and targeted thesis statement, but it will allow you to see what is needed and what is not needed before you go into your second round of drafting: actually writing your thesis statement/introduction.
Third: Read Your Body Paragraphs TwiceFlip your paper over, cover your monitor, close your eyes (if you can write with your eyes closed) and see how you can summarize all of the wonderful things you covered in your body paragraphs in one sentence. This should give you an idea of what your thesis statement is going to be.
Last: Re-read Your Body Paragraphs
Re-read the thesis statement you drafted. See how you can add a topic sentence and even, possibly, a lead-in sentence that moves your reader from your topic sentence to your thesis statement. It is completely acceptable to have a three-sentence introduction for a discussion board post! In fact, it is advised, as it allows you to spend more time and space on the ideas that matter the most in your post, while still giving your reader the direction they need. Some people can even swing this type of introduction in two sentences. It may be something you want to play with—but I would say start with 3 sentences first, and see how that goes.
And, Voila! You now have an introduction, topic sentence and thesis statement for a discussion board post. You have saved an hour or so in your writing/drafting due to outlining first. And your reader knows exactly what your post is about and gets a lot of valuable information due to you drafting such a focused and specific discussion board introduction. Go you!
Stay tuned for a future post on how to draft a conclusion statement (instead of a full-on conclusion) for discussion board posts. I promise to save you even more time with the next set of tips! We'll update this space with a link when the post goes live in the near future.
Meghan K Barnes holds a BFA in Professional Writing & English, an MFA in Nonfiction Literature, and a MAT in Post-Secondary Adult Online Education. These degrees lead to multiple opportunities including a Fulbright Scholarship to study the nonfiction work of Sylvia Plath in England, three Pushcart Prize Nominations, and four book publications.
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Using MEAL Plan Strategies for Tempo Learning Short-Answer Responses
As a student in a Tempo Learning program here at Walden University, I’ve gotten into a groove with my approach to each new competency. I open it up, check out the announcements, and then my next click is to the “Assessment” section to see what I’ll need to produce. I see variety in assessment formats, but what I’ve seen often are the short-answer assessments, and that’s what I’ll focus on today.
For short-answer assessments, there are usually a handful of prompts that require a response ranging from a few sentences to a few paragraphs. Usually I’ll download the provided template and scan through it to see what I’ll need to cover in the assessment, which also helps me decide how much time and attention to give to each the competency readings and materials.
After working through the competency materials and taking good notes, I usually find it rather easy to pull together the ideas for responding to each of the short-answer prompts. However, I noticed a pattern developing in my own writing for short-answer assessments that, as a writing instructor, kind of caught me in my steps. I noticed that I was sometimes responding to these prompts with two or three pieces of paraphrased evidence, and that was it. Sometimes my answers seemed a bit choppy or lacked flow (it can happen to the best of us, right?). Here’s an example of what I initially wrote for one of the prompts:
Short-Answer Prompt
Explain how a 2-year-old’s physical abilities compare to a 4-year-old’s physical abilities in a typically-developing child.
Response
Children around age 2 are typically running, climbing, bumping into things, and self-feeding (Stassen Berger, 2012). Four-year-olds may be catching balls, hopping on one foot, using scissors, and pouring from a pitcher (Stassen Berger, 2012).
Somehow, I overlooked something that I work with Walden students on every day, and that’s creating strong academic writing and paragraphs. Understandably, the format of short answer is different than what is typical in most academic writing situations, so it might be easy to not think about implementing our “normal” practices for academic writing in this context. The prompts typically allow me to use just a few sentences and don’t necessarily stress crafting a well-developed, cohesive paragraph. However, in my Writing Instructor role, I know what I would say to this student. I’d say something like:
So, with that in mind, I made sure to revise, using the MEAL Plan strategy as a guide:
Short-Answer Prompt
Explain how a 2-year-old’s physical abilities compare to a 4-year-old’s physical abilities in a typically-developing child.
New Response
There is a wide range and progression of physical development characteristics that children will exhibit from 2 to 4 years old. Children around age 2 are typically running, climbing, bumping into things, and self-feeding (Stassen Berger, 2012). These skills and behaviors continue to progress, and by the age of 4, children may be catching balls, hopping on one foot, using scissors, and pouring from a pitcher without spilling (Stassen Berger, 2012). The running and climbing practiced as a 2-year-old help prepare the child at 3 and 4 to hop, pedal a tricycle, and maneuver stairs without the use of hands. Developments in both fine and gross motor skills mean children can do more complex and precise movements as time passes.
This revised response addresses the prompt in a more cohesive and complete manner than my initial version, which included only paraphrased evidence. The MEAL Plan makes a great guide, and though it might not fit perfectly for every short-answer prompt, using it can help you create well-rounded responses in your short-answer assessments.
Final note: Maybe you’re a Tempo student who’s coming into the program with a lot of experience, so it’s easy to write assessment responses maybe without even doing the reading. That’s great! One thing to keep in mind is that using evidence and citing sources helps improve your credibility as an author, so it’s still a good idea to bring in some evidence from a published source along with the evidence based on your personal experience.
Amy Bakke is a senior writing instructor and multilingual writing specialist at the Walden Writing Center. She enjoys researching cultural differences in education and considering how people with different perspectives and histories experience education at Walden. She also enjoys learning about child development as a student in Walden's M.S. in Early Childhood Studies Tempo program.
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For short-answer assessments, there are usually a handful of prompts that require a response ranging from a few sentences to a few paragraphs. Usually I’ll download the provided template and scan through it to see what I’ll need to cover in the assessment, which also helps me decide how much time and attention to give to each the competency readings and materials.
After working through the competency materials and taking good notes, I usually find it rather easy to pull together the ideas for responding to each of the short-answer prompts. However, I noticed a pattern developing in my own writing for short-answer assessments that, as a writing instructor, kind of caught me in my steps. I noticed that I was sometimes responding to these prompts with two or three pieces of paraphrased evidence, and that was it. Sometimes my answers seemed a bit choppy or lacked flow (it can happen to the best of us, right?). Here’s an example of what I initially wrote for one of the prompts:
Short-Answer Prompt
Explain how a 2-year-old’s physical abilities compare to a 4-year-old’s physical abilities in a typically-developing child.
Response
Children around age 2 are typically running, climbing, bumping into things, and self-feeding (Stassen Berger, 2012). Four-year-olds may be catching balls, hopping on one foot, using scissors, and pouring from a pitcher (Stassen Berger, 2012).
Reference
Stassen Berger, K. (2012). Developing person through childhood (6th ed.). Retrieved from https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/1464166528/
Somehow, I overlooked something that I work with Walden students on every day, and that’s creating strong academic writing and paragraphs. Understandably, the format of short answer is different than what is typical in most academic writing situations, so it might be easy to not think about implementing our “normal” practices for academic writing in this context. The prompts typically allow me to use just a few sentences and don’t necessarily stress crafting a well-developed, cohesive paragraph. However, in my Writing Instructor role, I know what I would say to this student. I’d say something like:
This evidence from the literature is a great start, and it definitely addresses the prompt. To take it a step further and demonstrate your knowledge and academic writing skills, you might use your own voice to introduce the evidence from the literature and also follow it up with your own voice, maybe adding some analysis or a wrap up for the paragraph. One helpful strategy for crafting paragraphs that flow well and are driven by your own voice is the MEAL Plan. MEAL Plan paragraphs start out with a topic sentence, or main idea, to help ease the reader into the paragraph. Then, they typically include evidence, analysis, and a lead out. Even if you’re not expected to go the extra step and create MEAL Plan paragraphs, it’s a great opportunity to practice.
So, with that in mind, I made sure to revise, using the MEAL Plan strategy as a guide:
Short-Answer Prompt
Explain how a 2-year-old’s physical abilities compare to a 4-year-old’s physical abilities in a typically-developing child.
New Response
There is a wide range and progression of physical development characteristics that children will exhibit from 2 to 4 years old. Children around age 2 are typically running, climbing, bumping into things, and self-feeding (Stassen Berger, 2012). These skills and behaviors continue to progress, and by the age of 4, children may be catching balls, hopping on one foot, using scissors, and pouring from a pitcher without spilling (Stassen Berger, 2012). The running and climbing practiced as a 2-year-old help prepare the child at 3 and 4 to hop, pedal a tricycle, and maneuver stairs without the use of hands. Developments in both fine and gross motor skills mean children can do more complex and precise movements as time passes.
Reference
Stassen Berger, K. (2012). Developing person through childhood (6th ed.). Retrieved from https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/1464166528/
This revised response addresses the prompt in a more cohesive and complete manner than my initial version, which included only paraphrased evidence. The MEAL Plan makes a great guide, and though it might not fit perfectly for every short-answer prompt, using it can help you create well-rounded responses in your short-answer assessments.
Final note: Maybe you’re a Tempo student who’s coming into the program with a lot of experience, so it’s easy to write assessment responses maybe without even doing the reading. That’s great! One thing to keep in mind is that using evidence and citing sources helps improve your credibility as an author, so it’s still a good idea to bring in some evidence from a published source along with the evidence based on your personal experience.
Amy Bakke is a senior writing instructor and multilingual writing specialist at the Walden Writing Center. She enjoys researching cultural differences in education and considering how people with different perspectives and histories experience education at Walden. She also enjoys learning about child development as a student in Walden's M.S. in Early Childhood Studies Tempo program.
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Navigating Gray Areas in APA Style By Making Strategic Choices
APA style is complex; it’s like learning a new language. And
despite the fact that we would like for APA to be either right or wrong, like
language, that is not the case; there are a lot of gray areas.
Additionally, APA evolves based on many different factors, which leads to
shifting gray areas. APA gray areas are a common source of frustration for
everyone who works with it on a regular basis. As one of those people, I get it!
For me, tackling gray areas in APA is all about strategic
choice, which can include thinking about your writing as a reader, emailing the Writing Center for clarity, or reaching out to your faculty members for guidance. Here are a few gray areas in APA I’d like to highlight.
Citing Page Numbers for Paraphrased Information
This is a gray APA rule that continues to trip me up. I
always find myself going back to the APA Manual to reread what the American
Psychological Association has to say about when writers should include page
numbers when citing paraphrased information from a source. Page 171, section
6.04, of the APA Manual states, “When paraphrasing or referring to an idea
contained in another work, you are encouraged to provide a page or paragraph
number, especially when it would help an interested reader locate the relevant
passage in a long or complex text”. Like me, you might have some lingering
questions after reading this “rule.” First of all, what does “encouraged” mean
in the context of this sentence? Secondly, how do I know for sure when a reader
might desire a page or paragraph number in my citation for a paraphrase? And
lastly, what defines a “long or complex text”? Ten pages? One hundred pages?
After all of this questioning, the gray remains, which
means, as writers, it is our job to make some strategic choices. In situations
like this one, you have the opportunity to wear the shoes of your readers and
think strategically about what you would want, as an “interested reader.” The
next time you include a paraphrase in your writing, ask yourself: if I were
reading my paper, would I want to be able to look up the information I present
in this paraphrase directly from the source from where I retrieved it? If your
answer is yes, then add the page number. It’s easier to delete a page number
for a paraphrase than add it in later!
Using “Retrieved on” in Web Page Reference List Entries
This is a classic gray area in APA for now (this “rule,” like
many “rules” regarding electronic sources, could change over time). In fact,
you can learn about this gray area in APA and others in WriteCastEpisode 22: Make APA Style Work for You: How to Navigate Gray Areas. The
question is for this gray APA “rule” is: When do I include the date I retrieved
an online source in the reference list entry for that source? According to page
192, section 6.32, of the APA Manual, writers should “…not include retrieval
dates unless the source material may change over time (e.g., Wikis).” Again, I
have some follow-up questions: What defines “change” in this scenario? What
does “over time” really mean? Does the source material have to change every
day? Every month? Every year? How could I even know how often a source changes?
When you need to make a strategic choice concerning this APA
“rule,” I encourage you to think again about what information you might want in
your reference list entry for an online source, as a reader. If you know for a
fact that the source might change between the time you write a paper and the
time you submit or publish that paper, that’s a good reason to include the
retrieval date in the reference list entry for that source.
DOI Number Format
As of March 2017, there are three DOI formats that are
APA-compliant. This new development might be fun for those who like to
opportunity to choose a preferential DOI format. For others, this gray area can
be frustrating. Additionally, this DOI “rule” is not in the APA Manual; it was
created after the publication of the Manual due to the evolution of online
publication data. In an APA Style Blog Post, Timothy McAdoo outlines the following three DOI formats as
acceptable per APA rules:
https://doi.org/10.1037/arc0000014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/arc0000014
doi:10.1037/arc0000014
McAdoo does mention that writers should choose one DOI
format and stick with it for the sake of consistency, however. So when
formatting your reference list, make sure all of the DOI numbers for the online
journal articles you include display the same DOI format. I have fewer
questions about this gray area in APA, but when it comes to areas in APA that
are open to different choices and preferences, like this one, I encourage
students to communicate with faculty and the Writing Center. Different programs
may require students to adhere to specific APA preferences, which is sometimes
based on the types of sources students will commonly incorporate into their
writing.
If you’d like some
help finding the answer to your APA question, email us at
writingsupport@waldenu.edu. We at the Writing Center are here to support you
through the gray areas in your APA journey.
Ellen Zamarripa is a Writing Instructor and the Coordinator of Residency Planning for Walden University's Writing Center. She loves to teach and especially enjoys working with students asynchronously through paper reviews and then meeting them synchronously at residencies.
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Can Social Change Start At the Sentence Level?
As a Walden student, the main focus of your academic work is
likely creating positive social change. Your scholarly research may be on finding
therapies for treating PTSD or addressing a lack of housing assistance in your
community. These goals may seem distant while you pour over research and
critically analyze texts. However, as you are taking notes, developing your
thesis, and synthesizing your sources, change can occur on a smaller, local
level. One by one, the sentences you write can in fact be a source for good. By using active, rather than passive voice in your research writing, you can create
positive social change one simple sentence at a time.
When active
voice is used, the subject becomes the focus of the sentence. This emphasis
on the subject clarifies who is performing the action, and therefore, agency is
given to the subject. Using the active voice can create clarity and concision
in your writing, but it can also be a tool for giving your subject power.
For example, let’s take a look at a sentence in passive
voice: “The connections between BMI and heart disease were analyzed.” Here, the
attention is on what comes first in the sentence, “the connections,” rather
than who analyzed the connections. In passive voice, the researchers themselves
would not be important. Instead, what the researchers analyzed would be
emphasized.
Now, look closely at a similar sentence that has been
revised for active voice: “The researchers analyzed the connections between BMI
and heart disease.” Because the researchers come first, and they are performing
the action, the focus of the sentence is on the researchers and their work. The
reader’s attention is drawn to the researchers, rather than the connections
they analyzed.
While active voice can be used to clarify, it can also be
used to give a subject power and control. By using active voice in the
following sentence, I demonstrate patients’ agency over their own healthcare: “Every
day, the patients share their mental health concerns with their social worker.”
In this sentence, the patients are in control of their health, as they share their
concerns. The patients are not standing by while doctors and social workers
engage around them.
In the following example, passive voice takes away the
agency of the patient: “Every day, the patient’s mental health concerns are
shared with their social worker.” In this sentence, it is unclear who is
sharing the patient’s health concerns with the social worker. Perhaps a doctor
or staff member is providing this information on behalf of the patient, but the
patient is no longer in control. These may be small differences between
sentences, but with active voice, it is clearly communicated to the reader that
the patient has agency in the situation.
Let’s look at another example. In the following sentence,
passive voice emphasizes the object, trauma: “By using cognitive behavioral and
psychodynamic therapies, the trauma was worked through by the patient.
Alternatively, you could use the active voice to emphasize
the patient’s ability to overcome their trauma: “By using cognitive behavioral
and psychodynamic therapies, the patient worked through their trauma.” Here,
the power or control the patient has over their trauma is the focus. By using
active voice, the patient’s agency is celebrated, rather than trauma itself
becoming the focus.
While active voice creates clarity and concision in your
writing, more importantly, it is a way of holding the microphone for those who
have been silenced. It can be the means through which you share the stories of
others and give them control over their own experiences. Perhaps the steps towards social change really
do start at the sentence level. Through the structure of a simple sentence, you
can begin to write the steps for change.
Tasha Sookochoff is a writing instructor in the Walden University Writing Center. Along with earning degrees from the University of Wisconsin, Stout and Depaul University, Tasha has written documentation for the U.S. House of Representatives that increases government transparency, blogged for DePaul University, copy-edited the Journal of Second Language Writing, tutored immigrants and refugees at literacy centers, and taught academic writing to college students.
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Should I Use Narrative or Parenthetical Citation?
One complexity of APA citation formatting is that besides including all of the correct components in a citation, writers also need to choose whether to use narrative or parenthetical citation for each sentence that contains source material.
Maybe you have all of your research ready and know exactly how to cite authors and how often to cite authors, but you’re wondering about the difference between narrative citation, which is citation within the grammatical structure of the sentence, and parenthetical citation, which is citation within parentheses usually found at the end of a sentence. Is one type of citation better than the other? Are there rules for when to use each type of citation? If you’ve ever found yourself wondering any of these questions, you’ve come to the right place for answers!
Narrative citation appears within the grammatical structure of the sentence. Put simply, narrative citation occurs when you use the author’s name within the sentence.
A narrative citation with paraphrased material might look like this:
Narrative citation with quoted material might look like this:
In contrast, parenthetical citation includes the author’s name in parentheses rather than within the sentence.
A parenthetical citation with paraphrased material follows:
Maybe you have all of your research ready and know exactly how to cite authors and how often to cite authors, but you’re wondering about the difference between narrative citation, which is citation within the grammatical structure of the sentence, and parenthetical citation, which is citation within parentheses usually found at the end of a sentence. Is one type of citation better than the other? Are there rules for when to use each type of citation? If you’ve ever found yourself wondering any of these questions, you’ve come to the right place for answers!
Narrative citation appears within the grammatical structure of the sentence. Put simply, narrative citation occurs when you use the author’s name within the sentence.
A narrative citation with paraphrased material might look like this:
- Doe (2018) studied the swimming habits of marine animals in tide pools.
Narrative citation with quoted material might look like this:
- Doe (2018) argued that “many of the creatures in tide pools love to swim” (p. 280).
In contrast, parenthetical citation includes the author’s name in parentheses rather than within the sentence.
A parenthetical citation with paraphrased material follows:
- The marine animals that inhabit tide pools enjoy swimming (Doe, 2018).
Parenthetical citation with quoted material would look like this:
- In contrast to the inhabitants of larger bodies of water, “many of the creatures in tide pools love to swim” (Doe, 2018, p. 280).
Basically, the difference between narrative and parenthetical citation stems from citation placement within the sentence. One important rule to remember is that you won’t mix these two methods into one sentence; in other words, you might use either narrative citation or parenthetical citation in a given sentence, but you won’t use both in one sentence. With that explained, you might be wondering why a writer might use one over the other and whether one type of citation is preferred in APA style.
A writer might choose between narrative or parenthetical citation for several reasons:
1.) If the writer wants to highlight the author—for example, if the writer is making an argument about the author or highlighting what different authors argued about the same topic—the writer might choose to use narrative citation.
2.) If the writer wants to highlight the information rather than the author—for example, if the writer is making an overall point about a topic and the focus is on the argument rather than on who made the argument—the writer might choose to use parenthetical citation.
3.) If the writer is using the same source multiple times throughout a paragraph, the writer might choose to vary the different methods to improve readability and add sentence variety. Avoiding repetitive citing techniques when summarizing sources can improve flow and source integration in paragraphs.
In sum, narrative and parenthetical citations are equally important, and when and how you use them depends on your specific goal in a paragraph and in using a particular source. Using narrative or parenthetical citation can stem from a conscious choice to focus on the author or information, but it can also stem from an aesthetic choice to improve readability. Whatever type of citation you choose to use, the Walden University Writing Center has resources to help you perfect APA formatting in your coursework!
Katherine McKinney is a writing instructor in the Walden University Writing Center. She received an M.A. in English from Valdosta State University in Valdosta, Georgia, and is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in Education at Walden. Katherine's goal as an instructor is to show students that the best writing results from practice, and she aims to provide feedback and resources that will guide students through the invention, composition, and revision process.
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A writer might choose between narrative or parenthetical citation for several reasons:
1.) If the writer wants to highlight the author—for example, if the writer is making an argument about the author or highlighting what different authors argued about the same topic—the writer might choose to use narrative citation.
2.) If the writer wants to highlight the information rather than the author—for example, if the writer is making an overall point about a topic and the focus is on the argument rather than on who made the argument—the writer might choose to use parenthetical citation.
3.) If the writer is using the same source multiple times throughout a paragraph, the writer might choose to vary the different methods to improve readability and add sentence variety. Avoiding repetitive citing techniques when summarizing sources can improve flow and source integration in paragraphs.
In sum, narrative and parenthetical citations are equally important, and when and how you use them depends on your specific goal in a paragraph and in using a particular source. Using narrative or parenthetical citation can stem from a conscious choice to focus on the author or information, but it can also stem from an aesthetic choice to improve readability. Whatever type of citation you choose to use, the Walden University Writing Center has resources to help you perfect APA formatting in your coursework!
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Catch Your Reader's Ear: Simple Scholarly Voice Fixes
Note: This post has been updated per APA 7.
Scholarly voice is an important component of APA Style which involves being clear, precise, and formal in tone. If you’re worried your voice may not be scholarly or want to do some quick checks through your work, here are some fast tips and fixes.
If you feel lost regarding what scholarly voice looks or sounds like, re-read your course materials! Reading peer-reviewed journal articles can help you hear and see what scholarly tone looks like in your particular discipline. Look back over your course readings to get a feel for that tone. You might find it helpful to read aloud and/or circle/highlight areas which seem scholarly to you as you read.
Once you feel you understand how scholarly tone may sound in your discipline, read your draft aloud. Listen to how your work sounds. Do you stumble over a complex sentence or lose your train of thought? Do you find yourself saying something a little differently than you wrote it? These can be good indicators of clunky work. Additionally, do you hear your work sounding informal or casual? Do you hear shifts in tone or voice—whether this is the types of words you’re using or sentence structure? These are great ways to find places to revise for clear, direct writing that works towards scholarly voice.
As you read aloud, keep your eyes open for some of these patterns that make your writing sound less than scholarly. Once you get the hang of it, these patterns are easy to spot and easy to fix. It just takes some practice!
Adverbs
Adverbs (like "interestingly," "clearly," "ideally") are unnecessary qualifiers you’re placing in your work and don’t enhance meaning but instead highlight how you’d like the reader to feel. By revising to remove these adverbs, you streamline your work and create an objective scholarly tone.
Casual Language
Some common casual language might be phrasing like “a lot,” “sort of,” “very,” “really,” “just like” or other qualifiers (see again suggestion 1).
Lack of Specificity
As a writer in the social sciences, being precise and specific is important so your reader knows exactly what you’re writing about. Instead of writing “you” or “they,” for example, replace those terms with the specific population you mean. Replace “it” and “things” whenever possible with the more specific term.
Expressions
APA states to be as literal as possible and avoid expressive language. Some expressions might be “shines a light on”, “on the other hand”, “in the light of day”. All of these are perfectly fine expressions in conversation, but they aren’t compliant with scholarly tone because there aren’t literal lights, changes in the time of day, or two hands. Ask yourself if you’re being literal in your descriptions and explanations, and revise if not.
With these quick revision strategies, you can work towards revising for and achieving scholarly voice in your writing! For more on scholarly voice, review our scholarly voice webpages, our Use of First Person and Avoiding Bias webinar, and our APA Style modules.
Claire Helakoski is a Writing Instructor at the Walden Writing Center and hosts the Writing Center's podcast, WriteCast. Claire holds an MFA in Creative Writing. She has taught writing and Composition as well as acted as a writer and editor in a variety of mediums. She lives in Grand Rapids, Michigan, and enjoys reading, writing creatively, and board games of all kinds.
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Scholarly voice is an important component of APA Style which involves being clear, precise, and formal in tone. If you’re worried your voice may not be scholarly or want to do some quick checks through your work, here are some fast tips and fixes.
If you feel lost regarding what scholarly voice looks or sounds like, re-read your course materials! Reading peer-reviewed journal articles can help you hear and see what scholarly tone looks like in your particular discipline. Look back over your course readings to get a feel for that tone. You might find it helpful to read aloud and/or circle/highlight areas which seem scholarly to you as you read.
Once you feel you understand how scholarly tone may sound in your discipline, read your draft aloud. Listen to how your work sounds. Do you stumble over a complex sentence or lose your train of thought? Do you find yourself saying something a little differently than you wrote it? These can be good indicators of clunky work. Additionally, do you hear your work sounding informal or casual? Do you hear shifts in tone or voice—whether this is the types of words you’re using or sentence structure? These are great ways to find places to revise for clear, direct writing that works towards scholarly voice.
As you read aloud, keep your eyes open for some of these patterns that make your writing sound less than scholarly. Once you get the hang of it, these patterns are easy to spot and easy to fix. It just takes some practice!
Adverbs
Adverbs (like "interestingly," "clearly," "ideally") are unnecessary qualifiers you’re placing in your work and don’t enhance meaning but instead highlight how you’d like the reader to feel. By revising to remove these adverbs, you streamline your work and create an objective scholarly tone.
Casual Language
Some common casual language might be phrasing like “a lot,” “sort of,” “very,” “really,” “just like” or other qualifiers (see again suggestion 1).
Lack of Specificity
As a writer in the social sciences, being precise and specific is important so your reader knows exactly what you’re writing about. Instead of writing “you” or “they,” for example, replace those terms with the specific population you mean. Replace “it” and “things” whenever possible with the more specific term.
Expressions
APA states to be as literal as possible and avoid expressive language. Some expressions might be “shines a light on”, “on the other hand”, “in the light of day”. All of these are perfectly fine expressions in conversation, but they aren’t compliant with scholarly tone because there aren’t literal lights, changes in the time of day, or two hands. Ask yourself if you’re being literal in your descriptions and explanations, and revise if not.
With these quick revision strategies, you can work towards revising for and achieving scholarly voice in your writing! For more on scholarly voice, review our scholarly voice webpages, our Use of First Person and Avoiding Bias webinar, and our APA Style modules.
Claire Helakoski is a Writing Instructor at the Walden Writing Center and hosts the Writing Center's podcast, WriteCast. Claire holds an MFA in Creative Writing. She has taught writing and Composition as well as acted as a writer and editor in a variety of mediums. She lives in Grand Rapids, Michigan, and enjoys reading, writing creatively, and board games of all kinds.
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Spot The Differences: Checking Your Reference List for Consistency
APA references can be tricky to master, but we at the Writing Center promise that once you learn the patterns, it gets easier! After enough exposure and practice (along with double checking) you’ll be able to spot issues in your references as you proofread them. Today, we’ll go over some strategies to check your reference list so that you can see these patterns for yourself in your work.
Because this post is intended to mimic the drafting process of your references, some of the references presented will not be in the correct APA format when first presented. Look for "Correct Revision" to see the correct format for these examples.
Step 1: Format Your References
As an exercise, I recommend grouping your references by type, meaning you can have books all together, journal articles all together, and web pages all together, then any other types of resources. In your final reference list, you will need to alphabetize entries by the author name, rather than organize them by type. However, grouping your references by type initially can help you catch mistakes.
If you aren’t sure what entries are what type of source, this is a good chance to go take a second look at them or review our APA Methods to the Madness webinar on what formatting is expected for each type. We recommend building your references from scratch so that you can learn the formats yourself, but if you’re using the citation provided in a database etc. and it isn’t apparent to you which type of source you’re using, review this webinar for assistance.
Step 2: Look At All the References
Now that you have them all separated by type, take a moment to scan through all the references—note that the first two aspects of all references are the same: Author last name, first and middle name initials (or organization name, if there is not an individual author), followed by a publication year or n.d. (which stands for no date)).
Are any of your entries missing authors? Are any entries listing authors' full names instead of the required last names and initials? This is a good chance to check for this type of common error.
Another question to ask: Do I have a date or n.d. for all entries enclosed in parentheses and followed by a period? If not, these are small fixes.
Step 3: Review Formatting by Type
Now that you’ve looked over the basic reference formatting to ensure consistency, double check each type. A great way to find an example of each main type that is correct is to use our Common Reference List Examples page.
For books, you’ll notice you have the title of the book in italics, words over 4 letters and proper nouns capitalized. Additionally, books have publisher information and city information, as well as a period at the end of the entry. Double check these important elements: that titles of books are italicized and that you've included publication information.
In this example, I have bolded elements with different formatting here for emphasis to demonstrate the editing process.
"Spot the Differences" Example
Helakoski, C. 2017. Why Writing Centers are Great. New York, NY: Bedford St. Martins.
Barnes, M. (2015). Establishing a writing center. Boston, MA: Macmillan.
See how the bolded sections here differ between entries? In the Helakoski entry, the publication year is missing parentheses and the tile of the book is missing italics. These are quick fixes that are easy to spot looking at the reference entries side by side. Note that these entries are not yet in the correct order, but we'll fix that in Step 4.
Corrected Revisions
Helakoski, C. (2017). Why writing centers are great. New York, NY: Bedford St. Martins.
Barnes, M. (2015). Establishing a writing center. Boston, MA: Macmillan.
For journal articles, you have the title of the article itself, which follows the same capitalization rules as book titles: Capitalize the first word, proper nouns, and the first word after any colons. This title is not italicized. Then, you have the title of the journal itself, which is italicized and all words over 4 letters should be capitalized. Additionally, you need a volume/issue number and retrieval information like a doi or a URL.
Double check if all your journal article entries have non-italicized titles, italicized journal titles, and publication information including a doi or URL.
As above, I have bolded the elements of these two entries which are formatted differently for emphasis.
Spot the Differences Example
Nicole Townsend. (2016). The importance of writing centers. Journal of Writing, 15(7), doi: XXXXX
Bakke, A. (2014). Writing tutors and learning. Writing Center Journal, 2(5), retrieved from: http://www.writingcenterjournal.org
In this example, the first author isn’t listed with last name and initial. The second entry does not include italics for the journal title. Also, the two entries are not yet alphabetized. One difference that we don't need to correct is that one article has a doi and the other has a URL. Some articles will not have doi numbers, in which case including the URL of the journal homepage is correct.
Corrected Revisions
Townsend, N. (2016). The importance of writing centers. Journal of Writing, 15(7), doi: XXXXX
Bakke, A. (2014). Writing tutors and learning. Writing Center Journal, 2(5), retrieved from: http://www.writingcenterjournal.org
For webpages, there should be no italics in your entry. You will also need a retrieval URL and no retrieval date. Also make sure to include the title of the page you visited.
Here, as above, I have bolded aspects of these examples to demonstrate differences for revision in the editing process.
Spot the Difference Example
Laureate Education. (2017). Student learning. Retrieved from: http://laureateed.org/learning
Shiota, J. (n.d.). Why writing centers matter. Retrieved from: http://www.writingcenterblog.org/centers-matter
Here, there are some differences that aren’t an issue. Like how the first entry has a publication year and the second reads n.d. Also, the first entry has the company/organization as the author and the second lists a specific author. But there is one error we want to fix, and that’s the italics in the second entry which should be removed.
Corrected Revisions
Laureate Education. (2017). Student learning. Retrieved from: http://laureateed.org/learning
Shiota, J. (n.d.). Why writing centers matter. Retrieved from: http://www.writingcenterblog.org/centers-matter
Step 4: Re-assemble Your References Alphabetically
The final step is to put all of your revised references in order. Here's an example of what the hypothetical sample sources would look like in alphabetical order.
Bakke, A. (2014). Writing tutors and learning. Writing Center Journal, 2(5), retrieved from: http://www.writingcenterjournal.org
Barnes, M. (2015). Establishing a writing center. Boston, MA: Macmillan.
Helakoski, C. (2017). Why writing centers are great. New York, NY: Bedford St. Martins.
Laureate Education. (2017). Student learning. Retrieved from: http://laureateed.org/learning
Shiota, J. (n.d.). Why writing centers matter. Retrieved from: http://www.writingcenterblog.org/centers-matter
Townsend, N. (2016). The importance of writing centers. Journal of Writing, 15(7), doi: XXXXX
Now that your references are arranged by author rather than type, you've finished! Do you have any reference revising tips or did this process work for you? Let us know below!
Claire Helakoski is a Writing Instructor at the Walden Writing Center and holds an MFA in Creative Writing. She has taught writing and Composition as well as acted as a writer and editor in a variety of mediums. She lives in Grand Rapids, Michigan, and enjoys reading, writing creatively, and board games of all kinds.
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